1863 New York Draft Riot

The 1863 draft riot occurred in New York City from July 13 to July 16, 1863. It was a major eruption of violence resulting from deep worker discontent with the inequities of conscription during the U.S. Civil War. The riot was sparked by a new federal draft law that forced all men between the ages of 20-35 to enlist in the union army, except for African Americans who were not considered citizens and those who could pay the $300 exemption fee.

The riots were complex, with anti-Black and anti-rich sentiments, and involved crowds of white workers marching through the city, destroying buildings, factories, streetcar lines, and homes. African American families were targeted, and many fled the city altogether. The riots were eventually put down, but not before they became one of the bloodiest and most destructive in U.S. history.

The riots also had a significant impact on the city, leading to the birth of the New York City Police Department. The event was widely regarded as the culmination of working-class discontent with new laws passed by Congress that year and was marked by violent disturbances in Lower Manhattan.

BOOKS TO READ:

The Armies of the Streets: The New York City Draft Riots of 1863 by Adrian Cook.

The New York City Draft Riots: Their Significance for American Society and Politics in the Age of the Civil War by Iver Bernstien

1864 Fort Pillow Tennessee

On April 12, 1864, during the American Civil War, Confederate forces under the command of General Nathan Bedford Forrest attacked and captured Fort Pillow, a Union-held fortification in Tennessee. The fort was garrisoned by approximately 600 Union soldiers, about half of whom were African American troops from the 6th U.S. Colored Heavy Artillery and the 2nd U.S. Colored Light Artillery.

After the Confederates breached the fort's defenses, they began to slaughter the Union soldiers, particularly the African American troops. Many of the Black soldiers were killed, despite attempting to surrender. The Confederates also killed some of the white officers who had commanded the African American troops.

Estimates of the number of African American soldiers killed at Fort Pillow vary, but it is believed that between 277 and 300 were massacred. Many were shot, bayoneted, or burned to death. Some were also tortured and mutilated. The killing of African American soldiers at Fort Pillow was a deliberate and brutal act, intended to intimidate and demoralize the Union army and to discourage African Americans from joining the fight against the Confederacy.

The Fort Pillow Massacre, as it came to be known, was widely condemned in the North and helped to shift public opinion against the Confederacy. It remains one of the most infamous incidents of the Civil War and a powerful symbol of the brutal treatment of African American soldiers during that conflict. General Nathan Bedford Forrest's role in the massacre has been the subject of controversy and debate, with some defending his actions as a legitimate military tactic and others condemning him as a perpetrator of a war crime.

BOOKS TO READ:

Fort Pillow: A Civil War Massacre, and Public Memory by John Cimprich

1866 Memphis Massacre

The 1866 Memphis massacre was a brutal and unprovoked attack by a white mob on Black residents of Memphis, Tennessee, occurring a little more than a year after the Confederacy had surrendered in the American Civil War. The violence began on May 1, 1866, and lasted for three days, resulting in the deaths of 46 African Americans and injuring many more. The rioters also burned houses, schools, and churches in the African American community. The massacre was sparked by tensions between white and black residents, including an incident in which a white police officer attempted to arrest a black ex-soldier. The event demonstrated Southern intransigence in the face of Reconstruction and led to Congress enacting sweeping changes to federal policies. The massacre is considered one of the first large-scale racial massacres to erupt in the post-Civil War South.

BOOKS TO READ:

The Memphis Massacre of 1866: Terror, Violence, and Historical Memory by Stephen Ash

1866 New Orleans Massacre

The 1866 New Orleans Massacre occurred on July 30, 1866, when a white mob attacked a peaceful demonstration of mostly Black Freedmen gathered outside the Mechanics Institute, where the reconvened Louisiana Constitutional Convention met. The mob, many of whom were former Confederate soldiers, killed dozens of African Americans, with estimates ranging from 35 to over 200, and wounded many more. The massacre was a violent response to African American citizenship and the state legislature's enactment of Black Codes. The event shocked and alarmed the northern United States, leading to increased support for the Republican Party and contributing to the passage of Reconstruction-era legislation.

BOOKS TO READ:

Reconstructing Reconstruction: The Supreme Court and the Production of Historical Truth by Pamela Brandwein

Black Freedom: The Emergence of the Negro as a Factor in the South, 1863-1889 by Ernest McKnight

1873 Colfax Massacre

The 1873 Colfax Massacre occurred on Easter Sunday, April 13, 1873, in Colfax, Louisiana. A white mob attacked a mostly Black militia guarding the courthouse, resulting in the deaths of an estimated 60-150 African Americans and three white men. The massacre was a violent response to a Republican victory in the 1872 elections and was carried out by white supremacists, including members of the Ku Klux Klan. Many of the Black victims were murdered in cold blood after surrendering, making it one of the most devastating acts of terrorism during the Reconstruction era.

BOOKS TO READ:

The Colfax Massacre: The Untold Story of Black Power, White Terror, and the Death of Reconstruction by LeeAnna Keith

The Day Freedom Died: The Colfax Massacre, the Supreme Court, and the Betrayal of Reconstruction by Charles Lane

1898 Wilmington Coup Massacre

During the 1898 Wilmington Coup Massacre, Black people were targeted and subjected to violence, terror, and displacement. The white supremacist mob and militia killed an estimated 60 to hundreds of Black people, although the exact number is still unknown. Many Black leaders were jailed, forced to resign from their positions, and then forcibly marched out of town under military escort. Thousands of Black citizens fled the city in fear of their lives. The Black-owned newspaper office was destroyed, and the African American community was terrorized. The coup resulted in the overthrow of the multi-racial government and the establishment of a white supremacist regime, which had a lasting impact on the city and its people.

BOOKS TO READ:

The Wilmington Ten: Violence, Injustice, and the Rise of Black Politics in the 1970s by Kenneth Robert Janken

Democracy Betrayed: The Wilmington Riot of 1898 and Its Legacy by David S. Cecelski and Timothy B. Tyson

1906 Atlanta Race Riot

During the 1906 Atlanta riots, Black Americans were killed, wounded, and had their property damaged. The violence occurred between September 22 and 26, 1906, and was sparked by false reports of Black men assaulting white women. White mobs attacked and murdered Black people at random, with some sources estimating that at least 25 African Americans were killed, while others suggest the death toll may have been as high as 40. Hundreds more were injured, and significant property damage was inflicted, including the vandalism of Black-owned businesses. The state militia eventually intervened to quell the riot, but not before considerable harm had been done to the Black community in Atlanta.

BOOKS TO READ:

The Atlanta Riot: A Critical Incident of the Reconstruction Era by Arthur D. Murphy

1908 Springfield Race Riot

The 1908 Springfield race riot occurred between August 14 and 16, 1908, in Springfield, Illinois. A mob of about 5,000 white Americans and European immigrants committed mass racial violence against African Americans. The riot was sparked by reports that a black man had sexually assaulted a white woman, and two black men had been arrested as suspects. The mob wanted to take the suspects from the city jail, and when they were unable to do so, they began destroying homes and businesses in the African American community, known as the "Badlands." The riot resulted in the lynching of two men and the destruction of many homes and businesses. The event led to the founding of the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People (NAACP).

BOOKS TO READ:

The Springfield Riot of 1908 by Roberta Senechal

The Nation Must Awake: My Witness to the Tulsa Race Massacre of 1921 and the Aftermath of the Springfield, Illinois, Riot of 1908 by Mary E. Jones Parrish

1917 East St Louis Race Riot

The 1917 East St. Louis race riot was a bloody outbreak of violence in East St. Louis, Illinois, that occurred from July 1 to July 3, 1917. The riot was sparked by racial tensions that had been increasing since February 1917, when 470 African American workers were hired to replace white workers who had gone on strike against the Aluminum Ore Company.

On July 1, 1917, a rumor spread that a white man had been killed by a black man, and tensions boiled over. The next day, the city of East St. Louis exploded in the worst racial rioting the country had ever seen. Most of the violence, including drive-by shootings, beatings, and arson, targeted African American residents. White rioters burned entire sections of the city and shot black residents as they escaped the flames. Some whites also hanged several blacks, with one account claiming that whites believed "Southern negros deserved a genuine lynching."

The official death toll was 39 African Americans and nine whites, although some estimates put the death toll as high as 200. The riot left the African American community in East St. Louis devastated, with many homes and businesses destroyed. The incident is still considered one of the deadliest race riots in American history.

BOOKS TO READ:

Race Riot at East St. Louis, July 2, 1917 by Elliott M. Rudwick

1919 Chicago Race Riot

The 1919 Chicago race riot occurred from July 27 to August 3, 1919, and was a violent racial conflict between white and black Americans on the South Side of Chicago. The riot was triggered by an incident on a South Side Chicago beach, where a black teenager was killed for swimming at a white beach. The violence resulted in the deaths of 38 people, with 23 black and 15 white fatalities, and over 537 injuries, with 342 black and 195 white injured. Additionally, upwards of 1,000 black families were made homeless due to the burning and destruction of African American neighborhoods. The riot was part of a larger period of racial tension and violence in the United States, known as the "Red Summer" of 1919.

BOOKS TO READ:

Red Summer: The Summer of 1919 and the Awakening of Black America by Cameron McWhirter

1920 Ocoee Massacre

The 1920 Ocoee Massacre occurred on November 2-3, 1920, in Ocoee, Florida, when a white mob attacked African-American residents after a Black man, Mose Norman, attempted to vote in an election. The mob's violent reaction resulted in the deaths of approximately 50 African Americans and two whites, and the entire Black community of Ocoee was forced to flee. The event is considered one of the largest incidents of voting-day violence in United States history and has been described as "the bloodiest election in modern American history.

BOOKS TO READ:

Black November: The 1920 Ocoee, Florida, Election Day Riots

1921 Tulsa Race Massacre

The 1921 Tulsa, Oklahoma, race massacre occurred between May 31 and June 1, 1921, when a white mob attacked the Greenwood District, a prosperous African-American community in Tulsa, Oklahoma. The mob, which included some individuals who had been deputized and armed by city officials, destroyed homes and businesses, and killed an estimated 30 to 300 people, mostly African Americans. The exact number of deaths is still unknown. The massacre was sparked by a confrontation between a black man and a white woman, and it was fueled by racial tensions, jealousy, and a desire to destroy the thriving black community. The event was covered up for many years, and it was not until recently that it has been acknowledged and commemorated as one of the worst incidents of racial violence in U.S. history.

BOOKS TO READ:

The Burning: Massacre, Destruction, and the Tulsa Race Riot of 1921 by Tim Madigan

Death in a Promised Land: The Tulsa Race Riot of 1921 by Scott Ellsworth

The 1921 Tulsa Race Massacre: A Photographic History (published by the University of Oklahoma Press)

1923 Rosewood Massacre

The 1923 Rosewood massacre occurred when a white woman in Sumner, Florida, claimed she had been assaulted by a black man, leading to a manhunt and subsequent attack on the predominantly African American town of Rosewood. A mob of white men kidnapped, tortured, and lynched a Black craftsman from Rosewood, and then continued to terrorize the town, shooting and beating Black residents, setting buildings on fire, and eventually razing the entire town. The attack lasted several days, and by the end of the violence, the town was entirely destroyed, and its approximately 200 residents were driven out permanently. The massacre was a devastating event that destroyed a prosperous Black community, and its legacy continues to be felt today, with descendants of the victims still seeking recognition and reparations for the harm that was done.

BOOKS TO READ:

Like Judgment Day: The Ruin and Redemption of a Town Called Rosewood by Michael D'Orso

Rosewood, Florida: The Destruction of a Black Town by Edward Gonzales

1943 Harlem Race Riot

The 1943 Harlem Race Riot occurred on August 1-2, 1943, in Harlem, New York City. It began when a white police officer, James Collins, shot and wounded Robert Bandy, an African American soldier, after Bandy intervened in the officer's attempt to arrest a black woman, Margie Polite, for disorderly conduct. Rumors circulated that the soldier had been killed, leading to a massive uprising. The riot resulted in 6 deaths, 495 injuries, and over 500 arrests. The value of damage was estimated at $5 million, with many stores and shops in Harlem suffering damage. The riot was chiefly directed by Black residents against the police and was fueled by simmering racial tensions and economic hardship.

BOOKS TO READ:

The Harlem Riot of 1943 by Dominic J. Capeci

1964 Harlem Race Riot

The 1964 Harlem Race Riots occurred after a white off-duty police officer shot and killed a 15-year-old African American teenager, James Powell, on July 18, 1964. The rioting started in the Harlem neighborhood of Manhattan, New York City, and spread to other areas such as Bedford-Stuyvesant and Brownsville in Brooklyn.

During the riots, one rioter was killed, and many people were injured, including 12 policemen and 19 civilians. Over 22 stores were looted, and 30 people were arrested. The police used batons and fired 2000 gunshots into the air to disperse the crowd, but this further enraged the rioters.

The riots were a reaction to racial discrimination, segregation, police brutality, and social injustices that dominated the lives of African Americans in Harlem. The event was one of a number of race-based uprisings and protests that took place in multiple cities across the United States during the 1960s.

BOOKS TO READ:

The Heat of the Summer by Michael FLamm

1965 Watts Riot

The 1965 Watts riot occurred from August 11 to 16, 1965, in the Watts neighborhood and surrounding areas of Los Angeles. The riot was motivated by anger at the racist and abusive practices of the Los Angeles Police Department. It started when Marquette Frye, a 21-year-old African American motorist, was pulled over and arrested for reckless driving, which sparked six days of rioting.

The riots resulted in 34 deaths, over 1,000 injuries, nearly 4,000 arrests, and the destruction of property valued at $40 million. The event was a series of violent confrontations between Los Angeles police and residents of Watts and other predominantly African American neighborhoods of South-Central Los Angeles.

The riots were a reaction to racial discrimination, segregation, police brutality, and social injustices that dominated the lives of African Americans in Los Angeles. The event was one of a number of race-based uprisings and protests that took place in multiple cities across the United States during the 1960s.

BOOKS TO READ:

The Watts Riot: A Study by the McCone Commission

Burn, Baby, Burn!: The Los Angeles Riot, August 1965 by Jerry Cohen and William S. Murphy

1967 Detroit Riots

The 1967 Detroit riots, also known as the 12th Street Riot or the Detroit Rebellion of 1967, began after a police raid on an unlicensed bar, known locally as a "blind pig." The riots lasted for five days, resulting in the deaths of at least 43 people, with 33 being African American and 10 white. There were around 7,200 arrests and significant property damage, with nearly 1,400 buildings burned. The riots were among the most violent and destructive in U.S. history, with the National Guard and U.S. Army troops being deployed to quell the violence. The event was a major social insurgency, with some considering it a rebellion rather than a riot, and it had a lasting impact on the city of Detroit and its population.

BOOKS TO READ:

The Origins of the Urban Crisis: Race and Inequality in Postwar Detroit by Thomas J. Sugrue

Detroit: I Do Mind Dying by Dan Georgakas and Marvin Surkin

Violence in the Model City: The Cavanagh Administration, Race Relations, and the Detroit Riot of 1967 by Sidney Fine

1992 LA Riots

The 1992 Los Angeles riots began on April 29, 1992, in response to the acquittal of four white Los Angeles policemen on all but one charge connected with the severe beating of an African American man named Rodney King. The acquittal sparked widespread outrage and frustration, leading to crowds gathering on the corner of Florence and Normandie in South Central Los Angeles. Protesters threw objects at passing cars, set fires to buildings, and rioters of all races looted stores in the area. The riots resulted in 54 deaths and caused $1 billion in damage, with thousands of buildings being firebombed, windows smashed, and stores looted. The riots also led to the attack on the Parker Center police headquarters in downtown Los Angeles. The event was a major outbreak of violence, looting, and arson, fueled by deep-rooted tensions that persist today.

BOOKS TO READ:

Inside the L.A. Riots: What Really Happened and Why It Will Happen Again by Don Hazen

The 1992 Los Angeles Riots: The History of the Civil Disturbances across LA after the Beating of Rodney King by Charles River Editors

Geography of Rage: Remembering the Los Angeles Riots of 1992 by Jervey Tervalon and Cristian A. Sierra